The Bare Essentials of Essential Oils (Part 3)

In this final installment on the essentials of essential oils, we look at 10 commonly used essential oils. Using the facts from parts 1 and 2 on distillation, quality and chemical constituents, we explore why these essential oils do what they do, what the different variants are (if any) and briefly discuss the concept of "safe."

1. Lavender
One of the first and most prevalent essential oils, lavender is also one of the most varied. Because it's so popular with consumers due to its relative safety and multitude of uses, lavender is grown all over the world and its essential oil produced everywhere, using many different production methods. The correct essential oil to be using for clinical purposes is Lavandula officinalis or Lavandula angustifolia, and it should be steam distilled from the flowering tops. Quality essential oils are crafted in France, England and some parts of the U.S., but the oil deemed to be the highest quality comes from plants grown high up in the French Alps. Essential oils are distilled from other species of lavender, especially spike lavender, or Lavandula latifolia. What is the difference between the two?

A gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) report of L. officinalis should reveal an oil high in the ester linalyl acetate and the alcohol linalool, along with much lower percentages of monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes and esters. Linalyl acetate and linalool provide the calming properties most often associated with lavender, as well as antibacterial properties, anti-inflammatory action, and the ability to fight off certain types of fungal infections. This, combined with the non-irritating and easily metabolized properties of these chemical constituents, makes L. officinalis a great choice for cuts, scrapes, wounds and burns.

Spike lavender, on the other hand, provides a whole other set of chemical constituents. L. latifolia does contain linalool, but it also contains 1,8-cineole, camphor and small amounts of monoterpenols not found in L. officinalis. 1,8-cineole is also known as eucalyptol, and it -- along with camphor -- give L. latifolia its cooling scent and ability to clear up congested lungs and bronchial problems. 1,8-cineole is an expectorant (making you cough and spit up any phlegm in your lungs), and camphor dries up mucus. Spike lavender is a good essential oil to turn to when you have a chest cold. But the camphor content (sometimes 10-15%) means caution is in order. Camphor is a ketone and must be used sparingly, if at all, with children, including just as an inhalant.

2. Chamomile
Here again, all chamomiles are not the same. Two different essential oils use the name "chamomile," and they aren't even distilled from the same species of plant. Roman chamomile, Chamaemelum nobile (also called Anthemis nobilis), is a pale yellow essential oil with the scent of apples. German chamomile, Matricaria recutita (sometimes called Blue chamomile), is deep blue or dark turquoise and smells nothing like apples. C. nobile is fairly expensive -- $160 per ounce -- while M. recutita is half the price at around $80 per ounce. The interesting thing about the two chamomiles is that -- while distilled from different species of plant and containing completely different sets of constituents -- they can be used for similar purpose.

A GC/MS report on C. nobile should reveal an essential oil that is over 80% esters, which is why we associate chamomile so strongly with sleep and relaxation. Esters are also great at killing fungus and reducing inflammation, and they are generally safe enough to use with children.* M. recutita, on the other hand, is almost all sesquiterpenes and sesquiterpenols, but these constituents also provide sedative and anti-inflammatory action. This means both varieties of chamomile essential oil are appropriate for cuts, bug bites and scrapes. For a headache blend, I would turn to the sweet-smelling C. nobile, but for a nasty outbreak of eczema, M. recutita would be a slightly better choice.

3. Rosemary
Like lavender, rosemary is easy to grow, and its aromatic shrubs are found all over the world. Its pale-colored essential oil is distilled from the tiny blue and purple flowers of the plant and sometimes its stick-like leaves also. Depending on where the plant material comes from, how it is grown, and how the essential oil is distilled, you can find several chemotypes of Rosmarinus officinalis. All chemotypes bear the same latin nomenclature, but if the chemotype is called out (and they often aren't), the oil will be titled "Rosmarinus officinalis ct. camphor" or "Rosmarinus officinalis ct. cineole," meaning the essential oil contains more cineole than camphor or vice-versa. Whereas the different types of lavender came from different varieties of the same plant species, and the two types of chamomile actually came from different species altogether, R. officinalis' chemotypes can be created in the distillation process. Because the chemical constituent molecules each have unique structures, length and temperature of steam distillation can guide what the chemical makeup of the essential oil will be. You can see how important it is to have a knowledgeable distiller.

Most R. officinalis essential oils are the camphor chemotype, and while only a GC/MS report will tell you for certain, assume it's higher in camphor than cineole if not marked. Camphor, of course, is a ketone, and while its menthol-like aroma is well-known for clearing congestion and drying up runny noses, high doses of camphor can be neurotoxic. Use rosemary with caution (no more than 3 drops a day for two weeks). If you are making a blend for children, find and use the cineole chemotype -- why take chances when there is a "safer" R. officinalis? Cineole can also help with restricted breathing and wet coughs, and while cineole comes with its own cautions, it is safer than camphor.*

4. Lemon, orange, grapefruit, tangerine, lime, bitter orange, mandarin, bergamot
All of these essential oils are cold expressed from the fruit peel, meaning the not-yet-ripe fruit is lightly poked with needles and then squeezed to get all of the oil out of the skin. Other citrus oils, like petitgrain and neroli, use the leaves or flowers of the citrus tree. These citrus peel oils are being grouped together, because -- with the exception of bergamot -- they all have similar chemical structure and all contain significant percentages of limonene (70-90%), a monoterpene. Citrus oils are all excellent choices for oily skin and scalp blends, as well as any situation needing antiseptic cleansing. Their ability to act as an astringent, though, might also cause contact dermatitis in some people, so citrus oils should always be skin patch tested (actually, all oils should be skin patch tested). In addition to their usefulness on the skin, the monoterpenes in citrus oils can have a sedative effect that makes them a good addition to blends for stomach problems.

Bergamot presents a slightly different case than the other citrus peel oils. It does contain limonene, but about half the amount of the other citrus peel oils. More importantly, it contains a significant percentage of linalyl acetate and linalool, the constituents associated with lavender. This gives bergamot a deeper aroma that is longer lasting than an oil such as grapefruit, which is 90% limonene. These constituents also make bergamot a great oil in a calming diffuser blend. But bergamot also contains bergaptene, a furanocoumarin; coumarins and furanocoumarins (or furocoumarins) are not prevalent in essential oils, and bergaptene is the coumarin you will most likely come in contact with. The important thing to remember about bergaptene is its high phototoxicity: all of the citrus peel oils present the problem of phototoxicity, but bergamot is the biggest offender, if you will. The take-home message is to never use bergamot (or any citrus peel oil, to be safe) on your skin if you will be in the sun within 12-15 hours after using.

5. Fennel
This blog has covered Foeniculum vulgare in detail, discussing fennel's special use for digestive problems and lung congestion. When purchasing fennel, always get a GC/MS readout first, because the chemical makeup can vary widely from distiller to distiller. The main components are estragole, anethole and fenchone, and ideally you want an oil high in estragole content and low in fenchone content. Fenchone is a ketone, and while it contributes to fennel's affinity for respiratory issues, ketones can build up to toxic levels quickly, as they are difficult for the body to metabolize and excrete. Estragole and anethole come with their own warnings as well. Estragole is a phytoestrogen, a plant-derived chemical that mimics the body's own estrogen. This presents the possibility of essential oils like F. vulgare being used in the future to treat estrogen-related disorders, like estrogen-based cancers, endometriosis, and menopause-related problems. It also means the presence of estragole in fennel can be dangerous to anyone suffering from estrogen-related disorders, as well as developing adolescents. Anethole is an anti-coagulant and its use is not recommended with people on anticoagulant medications or those suffering from blood-clotting problems.

Fennel is the ideal example of why concepts of "safe" and "dangerous" are fuzzy in the world of essential oils (and herbal remedies and pharmaceuticals). On its own, sitting in a bottle, fennel is no more dangerous than water. Taken in appropriate amounts, with the correct precautions, fennel can be used safely with no problems. Taken incorrectly, without any respect for its chemical makeup, F. vulgare can lead to serious harm. Similarly, aspirin, if taken every now and then, following the directions and precautions on the bottle, poses no serious health threat. But overdosing can lead to stomach ulcers, liver failure and -- in extreme circumstances -- death. This does not make F. vulgare -- or aspirin -- dangerous; these are simply reminders that anything we use to enhance wellness, be it holistic or not, deserves our respect for both its beneficial and not so beneficial aspects.

6. Tea Tree
Again, Australian Tea Tree (Melaleucal alternifolia) has been covered in this blog, but it is a stand-out essential oil for its antiseptic abilities, and these are tied directly into its major chemical components: terpinen-4-ol, terpinenes and 1,8-cineole (eucalyptol). This combination is, literally, a powerhouse of antibacterial, antiseptic and astringent action and why tea tree is so prevalent. The significant percentage of 1,8-cineole gives M. alternifolia ability to help with lung congestion. Combining that with its antibacterial and antifungal activity make M. alternifolia a must-have in the first-aid kit, along with lavender. Tea tree is an ideal essential oil for cleaning, taking the place of pine-scented chemical-based cleaners. Studies are also beginning to show Tea Tree's effectivity not only with bacteria we come across daily, like E. coli and salmonella, but also with the strains of Staphylococcus aureus that have developed partial or full resistance to methycillin and related antibiotics (per Edwards-Jones, Buck, Shawcross, Dawson, and Dunn, to cite just one recent report).

Why would tea tree work where antibiotics are failing? Bacteria are living creatures, focused on survival. They surround themselves with a protective protein coat, and it's that coat that antibiotics target. But no antibiotic can eliminate 100% of bacteria present, so the few bacteria that survive the onslaught can "remember" what the antibiotic was like and pass that information on to the next generation. This new bacteria generation makes a slightly different protein coat, which renders the antibiotic ineffective. Tea tree oil, like all essential oils, is different from plant to plant, from distiller to distiller, even from bottle to bottle. And every year brings new conditions that cause the M. alternifolia plant to produce new variations of its essential oil. In other words, the inconsistencies existing in the essential oils themselves that make clinical aromatherapy a challenge at times are exactly what make essential oils like Tea Tree so effective at fighting off these new and very dangerous bacteria.

7. Clary Sage
Salvia sclarea is included here specifically for its constituent makeup. Like Lavandula officinalis, its two major components are linalyl acetate and linalool, but clary sage generally has a much higher percentage (up to 50% more) of linalyl acetate, making it an interesting alternative to L. officinalis. As a blend, it works well with both lavender and bergamot.

8. Peppermint
Mentha piperita is a general-purpose, fairly safe* essential oil that can be used in blends for oily skin and scalp, for stomachs that are acting up, and for head and chest colds. Its cooling aroma is soothing in the dead of winter, and its spiciness is a natural pick-me-up. Its main constituents are menthol (monoterpenol) and menthone (ketone). When we say "fairly safe," this is in comparison to Mentha spicata, spearmint, which can contain up to 70% ketones in the form of carvone, whereas peppermint's ketone content tends to be around 20%. That said, this is an oil that should be used with caution, and not with infants or pregnant/nursing mothers. Spearmint, on the other hand, should be avoided altogether when using with any children, seriously ill people or the elderly. Menthol, the other main constituent in peppermint, should be used with caution also. Its fumes can burn your eyes, and it makes M. piperita an oil that should never be used in cuts.

Again, as with fennel, we must look at the chemical constituents and their properties and figure out for ourselves whether or not to use peppermint. It can be used sparingly (as in a one-time dosage) for stomach rubs, stuffy noses and migraines -- always blended with other oils and always in a carrier oil. In my opinion, the monoterpenol menthol is beneficial enough to include M. piperita in blends for adults and post-toddler children, but this is an individual, case-by-case decision.

9. Eucalyptus
If you've ever had a cough drop or used a menthol chest rub, you already know how powerful eucalyptus can be in opening up congested airways and soothing coughs. There are several species of eucalyptus that are steam-distilled for clinical aromatherapeutic use: Eucalyptus globulus, E. citriodora, E. dives, E. radiata, E. smithii. All contain 1,8-cineole, except the citriodora variant, which is high in citronellal. Why are there so many versions of eucalyptus? E. globulus is the most common, and it is safe to assume that a bottle marked only "eucalyptus" is E. globulus. Radiata and smithii versions contain significantly lower percentages of 1,8-cineole, making these variants better suited for use with children, the elderly, and asthma sufferers (1,8-cineole can worsen asthma attacks in those people who have allergy-triggered asthma). Eucalyptus dives, on the other hand, has a much higher concentration of 1,8-cineole, like a "heavy duty" eucalyptus for thick mucus and heavy sinus congestion. E. citriodora, or Lemon Eucalyptus, contains a significant amount of the aldehyde citronellal, meaning it is effective as a bug repellant, but can irritate mucus membranes.

No variety of eucalyptus essential oil should ever be ingested.

10. Sandalwood
Santalum album is one of the most loved essential oils. Warm and earthy, it has long been associated with meditative and aphrodisiac qualities. Unfortunately, the oil is distilled only from the heart of a specific species of the sandalwood tree, meaning thousands of trees are cut down and much of the tree is then wasted. The Indian government is taking steps to stem the tide of this destruction, and the essential oil company, Aura Cacia, is funding an interesting experiment focused on growing farms of these sandalwood trees in Australia. What is it that makes sandalwood a unique oil such that people would destroy forests to get it?

75% of sandalwood is sesquiterpenols, specifically santalols. A sesquiterpenol is a fairly large molecule in the world of essential oil constituents, and large molecules tend to "stick around," meaning they take a long time to evaporate. The scent of oils with high percentages of sesquiterpenols is always described as deep or warm or earthy: patchouli, cedarwood, sandalwood. Sesquiterpenols are calming and often associated with aphrodisiac effects. S. album specifically has been studied for anti-viral action, and it exhibits anti-inflammatory qualities. Sesquiterpenes are astringent, but without the skin irritation associated with the monoterpenes in citrus peel oils. Due to its price ($200/ounce), however, and -- from a personal perspective -- because the harvesting of the raw material is unbalanced, S. album is an oil to be used sparingly. It lends itself well as the base note in a perfume, a blend with rose oil for a romantic massage, or one drop in a diffuser for meditation.


As you look over the three parts of this Essentials of Essential Oils series, you can see how important the quality of your oil is. You can also see that where the plant is grown, how it is grown, and how it is harvested not only affect oil quality but also can contribute to the various chemotypes an oil might have. Further, the way an oil is distilled and then how it is stored and shipped play an enormous role in chemical structure, and therefore the therapeutic actions of your oil. At every step of the way, the quality and effectiveness of an essential oil are dependent upon skilled and knowledgeable growers and harvesters, experienced distillers and bottlers, and finally retailers who understand truly what an essential oil should be. As a consumer and user of essential oils, you have a role as well. Ask for GC/MS reports on all oils you purchase. Ask questions and find out where your essential oil comes from, how the plant was grown. Ask about the distiller, find out when the oil was distilled and how it was stored. Now that essential oils are available everywhere and now that every candle and bar of soap has "aromatherapy" stamped on its label, the chances you might be purchasing a low-quality product are high. Only through diligent research and using reputable suppliers who know the difference between a scented candle and essential oils for clinical aromatherapeutic use will you be able to successfully use essential oils clinically.

Wishing you much health!


* Any mention of safety is relative. People with allergies can have dramatic reactions to even those oils recognized as "safest." Skin sensitization can also be a problem, which is why all oils should first be patch tested with anyone using them. Further, it is imperative to remember that essential oils are highly concentrated and even the safest oils must only be used one or two drops at a time, and it is strongly advisable to blend essential oils with a carrier oil, such as sweet almond or jojoba.

The Bare Essentials of Essential Oils (Part 2)

What are essential oils made of?

If you look at a bottle of shampoo, you may see among the ingredients listed: essential oil of Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) or essential oil of Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia). Essential oils are some of the basic ingredients of many products: shampoo, toothpaste, liqueurs, perfumes, and foods. Each essential oil, however, is a product itself, composed of its own set of ingredients, and these ingredients vary based on the manufacturer (which in this case is a distiller), when the plant material was picked, where it was grown and how it was distilled. In this entry, we will look at chemical constituents, the "ingredients" of essential oils.

As discussed in the previous entry, an essential oil is extracted from plant material through steam distillation and cold-pressing (there are other methods of extraction, but steam distillation and cold-pressing are the most commonly used for clinical aromatherapeutic usage). To use Rosemary as an example, the flowering tops (and sometimes the leaves) are steam distilled to produce a concentrated essence of rosemary. What makes this essence? Why does Rosemary essential oil smell the way it does? Why does it have therapeutic applications? Chemical constituents make up every essential oil, no matter the plant, no matter the extraction, and similar constituents are found in herbal extracts and in the plants themselves. It all starts with Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen.

Now, before you get worried, there will be no rehash of organic chemistry here. It is important to remember though that essential oils (and nearly all plant components) are just different configurations of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms. This is important, because it places emphasis on the fact that minor changes in chemical structure result in vastly different molecules with vastly different effects on the body.

For the most part, the chemical constituents of essential oils are organized into several groups: terpenes, terpene alcohols, ketones, phenols, aldehydes, esters, ethers, oxides, lactones and coumarins. This grouping is based on shared molecular structure, and does not necessarily mean that all terpenes or all ketones act the same way (for either beneficial or harmful effect) on the body. I will present a general overview of these groupings not as a guideline for therapeutic action, but rather to help you become a more educated consumer and user of essential oils.

Terpenes -- Monoterpenes and Sesquiterpenes

These are the most basic molecules found in essential oils. Monoterpenes are the main components in citrus peel oils, such as lemon, bergamot and grapefruit. Sesquiterpenes are slightly larger molecules (and therefore less volatile and less soluble in water), and you will most often come across them in ginger and German chamomile oils. Monoterpenes can contribute astringent qualities to an essential oil, and they are usually detected as the top notes in an oil: light, thin, high, and the first scents to evaporate. Sesquiterpenes in German chamomile contribute to its anti-inflammatory action, including reducing the itching of bug bites. Terpenes of all varieties can be associated with skin irritation, so the appropriate usage includes a skin patch test* and using the essential oil in a blend with a carrier oil (like sweet almond oil, jojoba oil, or even olive oil).

Alcohols -- Monoterpenols and Sesquiterpenols

This category of constituents is generally recognized as the safest, meaning they are not skin irritants, and your body metabolizes these constituents quickly, so they leave the body quickly and don't build up to toxic levels. In using the word "safe," I do not mean that any essential oil with a high alcohol content is safe in any quantity for everyone. Every person is unique, and some people are allergic to certain essential oils; further, every essential oil has a recommended daily maximum dosage. Linalool and terpinen-4-ol are the monoterpenols you will most likely come across in lavender and tea tree essential oils respectively; monoterpenols are associated with sedative action and antibacterial activity. Sesquiterpenols are less common, but the oils in which they appear -- sandalwood, cedarwood, and patchouli -- all have deep, forest-like, earthy scents. All three of these oils are great as bug repellants, which is probably why the trees/plants produce these oils. Sesquiterpenols are also associated with a calming effect and are great additions to blends for oily skin and scalp problems.

Ketones

In contrast with alcohols, ketones are not considered "safe" due to possible neurotoxic effects of several different ketone molecules. Of the 20 most used essential oils, only rosemary is likely to have a sizable ketone content (camphor); if you will be using rosemary regularly, you have several options. First, use the smallest amount possible for the therapeutic action, use for a maximum of two weeks and then take two weeks off. Second, contact your essential oil supplier and ask if they have the cineole chemotype of rosemary, which usually comes from Turkey, and has a lower camphor content (although there is still camphor present, and cineole presents its own risks). Lastly, find an oil with similar therapeutic effects that doesn't present the risks ketones might pose. If ketones can be dangerous, why would you ever use an oil with a ketone content? Because they can be beneficial as well, helping to dry up mucous in the chest when inhaled, presenting possible antiviral activity, and possibly other medicinal uses that will show themselves in research. The point is to know what is in your essential oils, not to make black and white declarations of "safe" and "dangerous."

Phenols

Like ketones, phenols can also pose a problem, as they are associated with skin irritation and toxic build-up in the liver. Thymol, a constituent in oregano and thyme essential oils, is the most frequently mentioned phenol, and you can find other chemotypes of thyme oil that have much higher levels of linalool and much lower levels of thymol. Eugenol is another common phenol, and you can find this in clove bud and cinnamon essential oils. Cinnamon is a known skin irritant, but clove is frequently use in dental applications as a topical anesthetic, so it's hard to say across the board that oils with high phenol content are skin irritants. If you are using the thymol chemotype of thyme, though, I would strongly recommend you do your research on safe usage and end any treatment with a liver cleanse.

Aldehydes

Aldehydes are also associated with skin irritation and toxic build-up in the liver. Cinnamaldehyde in cinnamon essential oil is the most common aldehyde (and probably why cinnamon is such a skin irritant). Much research is being done recently on cinnamon and its ability to kill bacteria and viruses; with its high phenol and aldehyde makeup, this does not surprise me.

Esters

Esters are usually considered "safe," with the exception of methyl salicylate, which is in Wintergreen oil, an essential oil not commonly used. Instead, you'll find the ester linalyl acetate in lavender and clary sage, and Roman chamomile is mostly esters (compare this with German chamomile, which has a high concentration of sesquiterpenes). Esters are associated with anti-inflammatory and sedative action; lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) is mostly linalool and linalyl acetate, which is why it is so strongly connected with a calming effect. Roman chamomile's high ester content can ease the sting of a bug bite, the pain of a burn, and the pain of an upset stomach.

Ethers

You will find ethers in such varied essential oils as fennel, clove bud and basil. The ether in fennel -- anethole -- is associated with relaxing the muscles of the stomach (which is why I recommend using it for upset stomach), and that in clove bud -- eugenol -- is probably responsible for its topical analgesic effect. But, like phenols and aldehydes, ethers are hard for the human body to metabolize, and they can build up to toxic levels in the liver. Basil is high in ethers (around 90%) and is a good example of an oil -- like thyme -- which is safe for consumption in plant form but needs extreme caution in essential oil form; remember that essential oils are highly concentrated extracts of plants: it takes pounds of plant material to make 1/2 ounce of an essential oil, so one tablespoon of fresh basil is not the same as one tablespoon of basil essential oil.

Oxides

In general, you will only come across one oxide regularly: eucalyptol, which is also known as 1,8 cineole. As the name indicates, eucalyptol shows up in eucalyptus essential oil, and it's responsible for eucalyptus' most famous action: expectorant. Eucalyptus globulus can have 70-85% eucalyptol content, and cajeput and rosemary essential oils also have significant eucalyptol content. Eucalyptus, tea tree and peppermint together make a potent inhalant for bronchitis, wet cough, and bad colds.

Lactones and Coumarins

These constituents show up in essential oils that are very rarely used or in such small quantities that you're unlikely to be using them in any quantity. One exception is catnip oil, which has a high lactone content, and is starting to show up in mosquito repellent, and while catnip essential oil is much safer than DEET, please be aware that lactones can cause skin sensitivity (remember to do a skin patch test!) and can possibly effect how your liver metabolizes medicines. The other exception is bergaptene, which shows up in a very small quantity in bergamot essential oil and is responsible for bergamot's phototoxicity (bergamot essential oil plus sunshine equals massive sunburn); the take-home message is to not ever use bergamot if you're going to be in the sun.


And that's it, the "ingredients" that make up essential oils. Now, how do you use this knowledge? Several ways, in fact. First, if you want to create a blend, e.g., for sleeping peacefully, but you can only think of lavender (and now you know that lavender's linalool and linalyl acetate content make it such a great relaxant), find other oils that have linalool, linalyl acetate or even other alcohols or esters. Second, if you come across an essential oil you've never heard of, find out the chemical constituents, and you should be able to generally assess the oil's usage and possible dangers. Thirdly, if you want to use an oil that is usually high in a constituent that comes with cautions (e.g., rosemary with camphor or thyme with thymol), you can research if there is a "safer" chemotype available.

In the next posting, I will look at some of the most commonly used (and researched) oils and their chemical constituents in order to illustrate the scientific explanations of how these plant oils can enhance our well-being.




*A skin patch test should be conducted with every new essential oil you try. It's very simple: one or two drops on the inside of your elbow, close your arm up for 5 minutes, check for a reaction, if no reaction, give it another 5 minutes. If, after 10 minutes, you have no reaction, this oil is safe to use on your skin. If you experience a rash or burning, wash the area with whole milk or oil (water won't do any good, as essential oils are generally not soluble in water). If the rash persists, see a doctor or dermatologist.

The Bare Essentials of Essential Oils (Part 1)

Just as with the topic of safety, LavenderNotes will revisit other basics of aromatherapy. Over the next few entries, we will look at the essentials of essential oils: how they are made, what they are made of, and why they work.

Getting the essentials: Methods of extraction

There are 4 basic ways to get an essential oil: steam distillation, cold expeller pressing, chemical extraction, and creation in a lab. The last two are not appropriate for clinical purposes, and are more often used for the perfume and food industries.

Steam distillation is the most common way of extracting a therapeutic grade essential oil, and it is used on leaves, roots, seeds, flowers, bark, and stems. The plant part is exposed to high temperature steam, which causes the essential oil to separate from the plant material. As the steam is cooled down, the oil (which, like all oils, is hydrophobic -- meaning it does not bind with H2O molecules) is physically extracted from the resulting water. Two events happen in the process of steam distillation that are important to point out: the plant material, including the essential oil, comes in contact with heat and water. If you have any experience in the kitchen, you will know that heat can change molecular and chemical compositions; e.g., when sugar is heated to 300 degrees, it becomes caramel, which has vastly different qualities than plain sugar. The heat in steam distillation creates certain chemical components that can only be found in essential oils created using this process; i.e., essential oils contain chemicals that other herbal forms (dried, extracts, and tinctures) do not, and vice versa. This means essential oils are not substitutes for other herbal products, they are complementary.

By the same token, water can interact chemically with certain non-oil (hydrophilic, or water-loving) components of the plant material to create new molecules. These molecules stay behind in the cooled steam and are the basis of a different aromatherapy product: hydrosols. Some producers refer to hydrosols as hydrolats or floral waters or flower waters. It is imperative you discuss the product with the manufacturer to determine exactly what their product is. The terms "floral water" and "flower water" are non-specific and can refer to anything from a true hydrosol to distilled water scented with essential oil to water infused with flower petals. Only hydrosols produced from the steam distillation process are appropriate for clinical use. Hydrosols will be discussed at length in a future posting, as they have their own uses and safety considerations.

The other method of extraction pertaining to clinical aromatherapy is expeller pressing, a term you may be familiar with regarding olive oil. Expeller pressing uses no external heat source, just pressure; the essential oils are squeezed out of the plant material, which is usually citrus fruit peel. Lime, lemon, sweet orange, grapefruit, tangerine, and bergamot essential oils are all extracted using the expeller method. This means these oils are not exposed to the high temperatures that essential oils are, giving them a unique chemical profile. This is not to say that all citrus oils are interchangeable, but it is fair to say that citrus oils are excellent astringents, and it is equally true that all citrus oils can produce skin sensitization and phototoxicity: if you use a citrus oil on your skin (in any form or dilution), you are well-advised to keep that part of your body from exposure to the sun. Additionally, because these oils are created from the skin of the fruit, it is vital that you use only certified organic essential oils and always, always ask for a GC/MS (chemical breakdown) of your oils to ensure no pesticide residue presence.

Beyond expeller-pressed and steam distilled, essential oils can be produced in a laboratory. This is done mainly for the perfume and food industries, and these oils mimic the scents and/or tastes of true plant-based essential oils. The term "essential oil" applies to these lab-created oils also, and it is important to remember that the ingredient listing "essential oil" on a soap or shampoo does not mean that ingredient is natural and plant-derived. As stated above, these essential oils are not appropriate for therapeutic use.

Lastly, essential oils can be extracted through various chemical means. Usually these oils are called "absolutes" or sometimes "concretes." Jasmine is the most common of these. There are several ways to extract using chemicals, and these include petroleum, alcohol, and benzene. The benefit of using chemical solvents is the absence of high heat, which can change the aromatic molecules of the flower, thus changing the scent. It is important to note that some aromatherapists use jasmine absolute for clinical purposes and others choose not to. Personally I do not, but if you choose to use an absolute, please find out the specifics of extraction, get a GC/MS of the absolute to ensure no solvent is left in the product, and never, ever let anyone ingest an absolute. Chemically extracted products are for external use only.

Next entry will focus on what essential oils are made of...

Helichrysum Italicum

"Helichrysum italicum subsp. microphyllum (Asteraceae)",
Giancarlo Dessi, GNU Free Documentation License

Immortelle (aka Helichrysum Angustifolium)

At $100 per ounce, you'd think helichrysum's essential oil really does make you immortal! While no essential oil can perform that trick, helichrysum does seem to turn back time: healing wounds, vanishing bruises, and disappearing scars. If you have children in the house, helichrysum truly is an essential oil for you.

What is Immortelle?

Immortelle is the common name given to the essential oil steam-distilled from the Helichrysum Angustifolium flower. It is also known as Helichrysum Italicum, and sometimes it is mixed with Helichrysum Orientale. Any of these Latin names is appropriate for therapeutic purposes. Helichrysum's name is derived from the Greek, meaning "golden sun," and you can see why in the photo above. It is part of the large Asteraceae family and is related to sunflowers and daisies; those with aster allergies should be aware. There are more than 500 species of helichrysum plant, so checking the full Latin name is important, as always.

How do you use it?

Helichrysum Italicum is commonly associated with the integumentary (skin) and hepatic (liver/gallbladder) organs. Helichrysum is grown — literally — around the world, and its chemical constituents (and therefore its color, scent and therapeutic actions) vary widely depending upon where it is sourced. Most often, it is grown in Western Europe, although at least one supplier grows and distills both the essential oil and hydrosol in Southern California.
Due to helichrysum's lack of homogeneity from bottle to bottle, as well as a profound lack of scientific research available, it is hard to make general statements about its therapeutic applications. That said, I can make personal assertions as to how I have used helichrysum sourced from both Yugoslavia and Italy:

1. Fights bacterial infection: helichrysum's ester and alcohol content make it ideal for warding off and fighting existing bacterial infections in skin wounds and burns. Mix the essential oil with lavender (Lavandula Angustifolia) — 2 drops of each — into 2 tablespoons of a carrier oil or a beeswax salve and apply. An alternative application is to use the hydrosol; hydrosols are also produced during distillation, although they can contain different chemical constituents. Helichrysum Italicum hydrosol can be sprayed directly onto the cut or burn.

2. Heals bruises quickly: helichrysum has a strong anti-coagulant effect, discouraging the formation of platelet aggregation. A combination of 2 drops of Helichrysum Italicum essential oil in 2 tablespoons of a carrier oil, followed up with sprays of Helichrysum Italicum hydrosol, can heal even the worst bruising associated with surgery and broken bones.

3. Shortens wound healing time: a mixture of Helichrysum Italicum, lavender (Lavandula Angustifolia), and vitamin E is invaluable for use on cuts and scrapes. Using this blend (recipe below) on a new cut can reduce healing time to 3 days and can eliminate the possibility of scarring.

4. Reduce anxiety: Helichrysum Italicum and bergamot (Citrus Aurantium var. Bergamia) blend nicely together for a scent that will calm anxiety and soothe the soul.

Several studies have attempted to explain helichrysum's antioxidant effects; unfortunately these studies either focus on the water-based extracts of the plant(1) or on specific isolated chemicals(2). Hopefully, research on the essential oil will be conducted.

Helichrysum's anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties are explained in the Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology as due to "multiple effects, including inflammatory enzyme inhibition, free-radical scavenging activity and corticoid-like effects."(3) This corticoid-like action probably also explains helichrysum's ability to act as an anti-allergenic.

An Italian study in 2001 showed a diethyl ether extract of helichrysum italicum "had an inhibitory effect on S[taphylococcus] aureus strains reducing both their growth and some of the enzymes such as coagulase, DNAse, thermonuclease and lipase" making the conclusion "helichrysum italicum extract could be a novel antimicrobial agent, less toxic to human skin and tissues, worthy of further studies."(4) I am uncertain of the application of this study to Helichrysum Italicum essential oil, although it could be applicable to its hydrosol.

Beyond the studies, helichrysum is traditionally used to strengthen the liver and promote the flow of bile. 1-2 drops taken internally twice a day for 2 weeks can be helpful in healing the liver. Alternately, the hydrosol can be taken as a drink. Suzanne Catty(5) recommends the following recipe:

Liver Congestion Tonic
1.5 liters of water
15 milliliters Immortelle (Helichrysum Italicum) hydrosol
7 milliliters Greenland Moss (Ledum Groenlandicum) hydrosol
7 milliliters Yarrow (Achillea Millefolium) hydrosol
1 drop Lemon (Citrus Limonum) essential oil (1 tablespoon of lemon juice is an appropriate subsitute)

This is recommended for recovery after an illness, hangover, or when quitting an addiction. Ms. Catty recommends this be used for no longer than 3 weeks.

Miracle Healing Drops (makes 1/8 ounce, which is enough to last you a long time)
1/32 ounce Vitamin E oil
1/16 ounce calendula- and st. john's wort-infused sweet almond oil (Hypercal)
The bottle is now 3/4 full

To this, add:

10 drops Lavender (Lavandula Angustifolia) essential oil
10 drops Roman Chamomile (Chamamaelum Nobile) essential oil
5 drops Immortelle (Helichrysum Angustifolium) essential oil

Shake well and store in dark, cool place. Use incredibly sparingly -- I put one drop on a Q-tip and use that on all the places it's needed.

Sore Throat Tea
8 ounces hot water
juice from 1/4 lemon
1 drop Immortelle (Helichrysum Angustifolium) essential oil
1 drop Lavender (Lavandula Angustifolia) essential oil

Sip slowly. This tea can be prepared up to three times in one 24-hour period.

Why does it work?

Helichrysum is mostly terpenes (limonene, pinene, y-curcurmene) and alcohols (nerol, geraniol, linalool, furfurol). Limonene and pinene are found in many citrus oils and explain helichrysum's ability to clean cuts and wounds. The alcohol, linalool, is one of the most common alcohols found in essential oils, being a constituent in lavender, thyme, and clary sage. Nerol is a component also found in neroli (orange flower), and geraniol is also found in geranium's essential oil. Alcohols can be great anti-bacterial agents.

Neryl Acetate, an ester, is present and will also provide antibacterial action.

Helichrysum also contains eugenol, a phenol associated with the essential oils of clove bud and cinnamon. It is responsible for topical anesthetic action.

Lastly, helichrysum sourced from Italy might also contain azulene, the component of blue chamomile that makes it blue. Azulene, a sesquiterpene, contributes to helichrysum's anti-inflammatory, calming and antibacterial qualities.

What are the dangers?

Non-organic oils, oils made poorly, oils of the wrong chemical ratios; as mentioned, Helichrysum Italicum can vary widely in its chemical constituents based on where it is sourced. Always ask your supplier for a GC/MS or a breakdown of chemical components and their percentages.

Helichrysum's anti-coagulant action means it should not be used on anyone suffering from blood-clotting problems or taking anti-coagulant medications.

People with allergies to flowers in the Asteraceae family should use helichrysum with caution or not at all.

If you suffer from gallstones or any blockage of bile flow, helichrysum should be avoided. It promotes the flow of bile, and if there is an obstruction, this can be harmful.

Always test new oils (one drop diluted in 1 teaspoon of carrier oil) on the crook of your arm for sensitization.

Don't expose yourself or anyone to any more than 4 drops internally or inhaled in any 24-hour period. With essential oils, less is always more!

Final Note.

More research needs to be done with regards to the vulnerary and anti-bacterial effects of Helichrysum Italicum's essential oil. I know from my own experience, as well as anecdotally, that helichrysum is the oil to reach for to heal cuts, scrapes and bruises. Additionally, it is safe to use on children and does not pose the risk of creating antibiotic-resistant bacteria.

And while helichrysum essential oil is pricey, its hydrosol is less costly and can be used for many of the same applications. The hydrosol is actually even milder than the essential oil and is ideal for use with older people, babies, and even cats and dogs.

As always, I urge you to consult an expert before treating yourself.

I wish you good health.



(1) Czinner E, Hagymasi K, Blazovics A, Kery A, Szoke E, Lemberkovics E, "The in vitro effect of Helichrysi flos on microsomal lipid peroxidation," J Ethnopharmacol, 2001 Sep;77(1):31-5
(2) Rosa A, Deiana M, Atzeri A, Corona G, Incani A, Melis MP, Appendino G, Dessì MA, "Evaluation of the antioxidant and cytotoxic activity of arzanol, a prenylated alpha-pyrone-phloroglucinol etherodimer from Helichrysum italicum subsp.microphyllum," Chemico-Biological Interactions, 2007 Jan 30; 165(2):117-26; PubMed ID 17194458
(3) Sala A, del Carmen Recio M, Giner RM, Máñez S, Tournier H, Schinella G, Ríos J-L, "Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties of Helichrysum Italicum," Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, Volume 54, Number 3, 1 March 2002 , pp. 365-371(7)
(4) Nostro A, Bisignano G, Angela Cannatelli M, Crisafi G, Paola Germanò M, Alonzo V, "Effects of Helichrysum italicum extract on growth and enzymatic activity of Staphylococcus aureus," International journal of antimicrobial agents, 2001 Sep, 18(3): 305; PubMed ID 11397624
(5) Catty, Suzanne, Hydrosols The Next Aromatherapy, 2001, page 222

Common Cold

Winter is known as cold and flu season. Some of you have written to me about the flu, although the symptoms I am hearing most appear to be the cold and not the flu. It is hard to tell the difference sometimes. We will be looking at the cold, which is generally characterized by a stuffed up (or constantly running) nose, swelling of the sinus tissue, sore or raspy throat, and oftentimes the feeling that one's head is "swelled up like a balloon." Secondary symptoms can include laryngitis leading to loss of voice, nausea due to sinus drainage into the digestive tract, and a low-grade fever. If you are experiencing aching joints, exhaustion, and a high fever, you probably have the flu. If mucus gets into your lungs, you have trouble breathing, and you are running a fever, you probably have bronchitis and should see a doctor. If left untreated, bronchitis can lead to pneumonia, which can be fatal.

A majority of colds are caused by the rhinovirus (rhin- means nose in Greek), which is easily transmitted from human-to-human contact. A common way to catch a cold is hand-to-hand with self-transference through the nose, eye or mouth. In other words, shaking hands with someone who has a cold and then eating or rubbing your eyes. The rhinovirus can last up to 2 hours on human skin and up to 4 hours on an inanimate object, such as a bathroom sink faucet.(2) Luckily, cold sufferers tend to be infectious when they're symptomatic, so it can be easy to avoid human-to-human contact.

Prevention
The best way to treat a cold is to not get one in the first place, and this is fairly easily accomplished with some common sense:

1. Wash your hands before every meal and after visiting the bathroom. Every time. The "Making Light" blog listed some excellent advice on washing your hands (although I disagree with the recommendation of cleaning with bleach). Points to remember: use soap (not antibacterial soap, which breeds supergerms) because soap makes germs flow off of your hands in the running water, you must rub your soapy hands together to remove the germs, and you should turn off the bathroom faucet using a paper towel, so as not to reinfect yourself. (1)

2. Ask sick employees or students to go home. They need their rest, and no one needs their infection.

3. Avoid crowds. Rhinovirus thrives in warm, moist, crowded environments, like crowded shopping malls.(2)

4. Eat healthfully, take your vitamins, get lots of rest and keep warm. If your immune system is up to par, you will have a better chance of avoiding infection.

Anti-Cold Diffuser Mix
6 drops Orange (Citrus Sinensis)
4 drops Rosemary (Rosmarinus Officinalis)
3 drops Tea Tree (Melaleuca Alternifolia)
1 drop Geranium (Pelargonium Graveolens)

Anti-Cold Spray (2 ounces)
1 1/2 ounce water
Just under 1/2 ounce vodka
6 drops Orange (Citrus Sinensis)
6 drops Rosemary (Rosmarinus Officinalis)
2 drops Tea Tree (Melaleuca Alternifolia)
2 drops Geranium (Pelargonium Graveolens)
2 drops Cedarwood (Cedrus Atlantica)

You can use this spray in the air or spray on non-porous surfaces after you have washed them down.

Early Treatment
Once you have a cold, there is no way to "cure" yourself, but you can keep symptoms to a minimum and reduce the illness' length if you attack right away.

1. Echinacea (Angustifolia, Purpurea, Pallida) – Studies are conflicting on the effectiveness of echinacea. Those that support its use show it to be ineffective in prevention but better suited to reducing the length of the illness. 30-60 drops in tincture form is the recommended dosage, per PDR for Herbal Medicines. Some tinctures offer an echinacea-goldenseal mixture, which is recommended as goldenseal has been shown to act against bacteria and inflammation.(3) Drug interactions exist, and echinacea and goldenseal are not recommended for pregnant or breastfeeding women.

2. Eat healthfully, take your vitamins, get plenty of rest and keep warm. As soon as you feel any symptoms, treat yourself as if you are sick. Do not go to the gym, do not go to work or school, do not go to parties. Drink plenty of water and tea (green tea contains high levels of antioxidants, which strengthen the body's defenses). Your grandma has been telling you for years to take some chicken soup; listen to her, because laboratory tests have shown chicken soup to be great at fighting inflammation.(4) It's best to make your own soup (or have grandma make it for you), but if you end up with canned soup, avoid major brands with preservatives and high levels of sodium. Organic chicken broth is the best choice.

3. What about Emergen-C and Airborn? Studies have shown that neither of these supplements cure a cold or flu, but they are great sources of the vitamins and minerals you need for a strong immune system. Remember: there is no Magic Pill, but a strong, daily supply of vitamins and minerals works hand in hand with a diet focused on fresh, whole foods and lots and lots of fluids. In other words, it does you no good to chug down four Emergen-Cs a day if all you're eating are french fries and ice cream. Fresh vegetables (or frozen), fruit juice, whole grains (put some brown rice in that chicken soup) are necessary.

Full Treatment
If the cold gets the best of you, you need some help to turn the tide.

1. Sleep. This is the best way to fight off nearly any infection. When your body is truly asleep (not just with eyes closed), it heals itself.

2. Fluids, especially tea. This helps fight off dehydration, as well as flush out dead white blood cells and germs. Hot tea helps soothe a sore throat, lemon's antiseptic qualities can clean out germs, and honey has antibacterial qualities. What type of tea? Green tea is high in antioxidants, ginger soothes a nauseous stomach, rosehip has vitamin C. Or consider some of the other types of teas -- white and Rooibos. Try a drop of Lavender (Lavandula Angustifolia) for extra anti-inflammation and anti-bacterial action (often, a sore throat is open to secondary bacterial infection).

3. Eat healthfully, take your vitamins, get plenty of rest and keep warm. Obviously, this can not be stressed enough. If you have nasal congestion, it is imperative to avoid dairy (no ice cream, no milk, no yogurt, etc.).

Breathe Easier Chest Rub
1 cup olive oil
3/4 oz. beeswax
1 1/2 tsp Cajuput (Melaleuca Leucadendron var. Cajuputi)
1 tsp Peppermint (Mentha Piperita)

Melt the beeswax and olive oil GENTLY in a microwave or in the top of a double boiler. Allow to cool a bit, stir in the essential oils and pour into a container. Once cooled, rub 1/4 tsp on chest and back. The cooling fumes will help you breathe through the nose, and you will notice relief from chest congestion.

War On Germs! Diffuser Mix
2 drops Chamomile (Chamamaelum Nobile)
2 drops Cinnamon Bark (Cinnamomum Zeylanicum)
2 drops Clove Bud (Syzygium Aromaticum)
2 drops Lavender (Lavandula Angustifolia)
2 drops Marjorum (Origanum Majorana)
2 drops Peppermint (Mentha Piperita)
2 drops Tea Tree (Melaleuca Alternifolia)
2 drops Thyme (Thymus Vulgaris)

I can not tell you this smells good, because it doesn't, but it is like a nuclear bomb on germs. Do not let the diffuser run for more than 30 minutes.

My wishes that you stay healthy throughout the new year.




(1) Making Light
(2) Rajnik, Michael, MD; eMedicine.com; "Rhinoviruses"
(3) Natural Standard
(4) CNN

Lavender Notes on Hiatus

The Lavender Notes aromatherapy blog will be back the second week of 2008. Many new things are planned for the new year, including a store! So, enjoy a healthy holiday season and come visit us in January.

Foeniculum Vulgare var. Dulce

Photograph by Liisa Shunn

Sweet Fennel

If you've been to an Indian restaurant, you might have noticed what looked like a bowl of caraway seeds where a bowl of peppermints would normally be. Those are fennel seeds, and they do what a peppermint wheel does, only better -- freshen your breath. Fennel, as a plant, is odd to Americans: its bulbs resemble a fat celery stalk, but its flavor is subtly licorice-like. The entire plant can be used -- the feathery leaves are used as an herb, the seeds are used as a spice, and the bulb is a vegetable good in roasts, casseroles, or even in a stir fry. For our purposes, we will be looking at the essential oil that is steam distilled from fennel's seeds.

What is Fennel?

Fennel essential oil, as stated, is steam distilled from the crushed seeds of the Foeniculum Vulgare var. Dulce, or Sweet Fennel, plant. Fennel comes in two varieties, and both have medicinal properties. The variety we are discussing is Sweet Fennel, but there is also a Bitter variety, Foeniculum Vulgare var. Vulgare (or Amarga). Bitter Fennel oil has a high percentage of fenchone, a ketone, which is excellent for bronchial congestion and breathing issues, but can be toxic in very small amounts. Please make sure you are using the safer Fennel oil by checking the Latin name.

How do you use it?

When thinking of Fennel, I associate it with three therapeutic actions: lung congestion and difficulty breathing, dyspepsia and all manners of digestive issues, and pain management.

If you have a high quality (see below) oil, completely unadulterated, you will find Fennel is great for the following uses:

1. Halitosis -- Those Fennel seeds at the Indian restaurant are there for a reason. The main cause of halitosis is rooted deep in the stomach. 2 drops of Sweet Fennel essential oil in 6 ounces of water can be gargled to relieve bad breath. You might also try using a fennel toothpaste (such as Tom's of Maine).

2. Infant Colic -- Clinical in vivo studies have proven Fennel to be effective in relieving colic in infants. Do not use Fennel essential oil, however, as it is too strong for babies and toddlers. Instead, you can steep a tablespoon of Fennel seeds in two cups of hot water; use this as a tea, mix a tablespoon of it with olive oil and use as a rub on the stomach, or mix with some milk. (As a side note, if you are having problems with infant colic, the best method is a tablespoon of Fennel seeds and a tea bag of Chamomile in 2 cups of boiling water; steep for 10 minutes; strain and bring down to a temperature appropriate for an infant; add the mixture to a bath and gently massage the baby's stomach in a clockwise motion.)

3. Constipation, gas, indigestion -- Eat too much or eat the wrong thing? Fennel was made for this type of ailment. 2 drops of Fennel essential oil in 2 tablespoons of carrier oil (olive, sweet almond, jojoba, etc.) makes a great stomach rub. This blend makes enough for several doses, so rub some on in a clockwise motion. You can also make the tea mentioned above: one tablespoon of Fennel seeds and one Chamomile tea bag to 2 cups of boiling water; drink slowly. A much stronger tea uses 1 drop of Fennel essential oil and 2 drops of Lemon essential oil (Citrus Limonum) or the juice from 1/4 lemon in a cup of boiling water; drink slowly. Please note that Fennel is a laxative, so its use is contraindicated if you are experiencing diarrhea.

4. Asthma, difficulty breathing, bronchial congestion -- Boiling up 2 cups of water and adding 2 drops of Fennel essential oil, 5 drops of Peppermint essential oil (Mentha Piperita), and 5 drops of Eucalyptus essential oil (Eucalyptus Globulus or Eucalyptus Smithii) makes a soothing inhalant that will open up lung passages. Lean over a bowl of the steaming mixture and put a towel over you and the bowl to increase the intensity; make sure to close your eyes, as the Peppermint and Eucalyptus can sting!

5. Joint pain -- 2 drops in 2 tablespoons of carrier oil can be used to ease the pain of rheumatism or sports injuries. It is believed Fennel's anethole content is responsible for its anti-inflammatory quality.

I like to provide clinical data to accompany the anecdotal evidence, but there is very little out there. This is true of most essential oils; clinical trials cost money, and there isn't an aromatherapy lobby with bags of money to encourage universities and the FDA to conduct research. This is not conspiracy, it is simple fact. It is important to point out, however, that people all over the world have been using herbs and oils to treat maladies for thousands of years without the benefit of clinical studies. If these remedies didn't work, disparate cultures over millennia would have stopped using them long ago. That said, these are some of the more interesting studies on Fennel essential oil:

Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine published the results of a study conducted by Alexandrovich, Rakovitskaya, Kolmo, Sidrova and Shusunov at the Department of Pediatrics in the St. Petersburg Medical Academy of Postdoctora Education showing "significant improvement" in the symptoms of infantile colic in the group using Fennel seed oil emulsion as compared to the placebo group. An added benefit? No side effects observed.

Two studies(1)(2) in the past few years showed Fennel essential oil to be effective against six Bacillus species, as well as E. Coli, 27 phytopathogenic bacterial species and two mycopathogenic bacterial species (phytopathogenic bacteria cause illness in plants; mycopathogenic bacteria cause disease in mushrooms). Mostly these studies were conducted to prove (or disprove) Fennel's usefulness in preserving food and/or crops, but Fennel essential oil's antibacterial activity can be one of the reasons it works so well in the digestive tract, especially against E. Coli.

An in vivo study of 60 women concluded "the essence of fennel can be used as a safe and effective herbal drug for primary dysmenorrhea, however, it may have a lower potency than [the commonly prescribed drug for dysmenorrhea] in the dosages used for this study."(3) What does this mean, and why isn't fennel listed as a treatment for dysmenorrhea on this blog? It means Fennel essential oil (possibly used in conjunction with other oils, such as Clary Sage and Geranium) can help women who experience painful menstrual cramps and irregular cycles. Fennel is not listed on this blog as a solution for this problem, because Fennel is contraindicated for women who suffer from endometriosis and estrogen-dependant cancers; dysmenorrhea can be a side effect of both endometriosis and estrogen-dependant cancers, and it is strongly recommended you eliminate all serious causes of menstrual cramps before treating yourself with essential oils. In other words, please visit your integrative physician, naturopath or midwife first!

Why does it work?

The main chemical components of Fennel essential oil are estragole and anethole, fenchone (in varying amounts, depending on the variety of Fennel), anise aldehyde and the common monoterpenes phellandrene, limonene, myrcene and pinene. (There are other chemicals present.)

When researching a quality Fennel oil, please find out the chemical breakdown from your supplier (this is why buying oils at the supermarket is a bad idea): you want an oil that is high in estragole (60% or higher) and contains less than 5% fenchone (due to possible toxicity issues, although fenchone, as noted, is excellent as an expectorant). Resist the temptation to purchase an inexpensive oil, as the "cheap" brands are often diluted with synthetic anethole. Anything synthetic or animal-derived is inappropriate for therapeutic use.

Fenchone, phellandrene, and pinene can all cause skin irritation, so please always test one drop in the crook of your arm. If you have any rashes or burning, rinse off with milk or olive oil, followed with soap and water. It is highly advisable not to use Fennel essential oil undiluted (neat). In fact, you need only 2 drops for a whole bath.

What are the dangers?

Non-organic oils, oils made poorly, oils of the wrong chemical ratios; as mentioned, you want an oil high in estragole, but very low in fenchone. You also need to be very careful of synthetic anethole as a diluent. Organic Sweet Fennel essential oil (Foeniculum Vulgare var. Dulce) from a quality supplier with the correct percentages of chemical constituents is a must for clinical application.

Fennel can cause muscle spasms and is not to be used on anyone suffering from epilepsy or nervous system disorders.

Due to the possible presence of phytoestrogens in Fennel essential oil (this is debatable), do not use Fennel if there is evidence or a history of endometriosis, estrogen-related disorders, or estrogen dependant cancers. It is the possible presence of these phytoestrogens that explains Fennel's long history as the herb for women experiencing dysmenorrhea and amenorrhea. If you suffer from painful menstrual cycles or no menstrual period at all, consult your integrative physician, midwife or naturopath first (before you try to treat yourself), as these issues can be symptoms of something more serious.

Anethole is a possible anticoagulant, so it is not advisable to use Fennel essential oil if you have problems with blood clotting or if you are on anticoagulant medications.

Always test new oils (one drop diluted in 1 teaspoon of carrier oil) on the crook of your arm for sensitization.

Don't expose yourself or anyone to any more than 5 drops (topically or inhaled) in one day (don't use anymore than 2-3 drops at any single time, and don't use for more than 3 weeks), and don't use on children under 15, pregnant moms, the very elderly or frail, cats or dogs. That said, Fennel has long been used when new mothers have trouble producing milk. Discuss this with your midwife or doctor before using, due to the fenchone content. As with all oils, err on the side of caution, i.e., if deciding between using 2 and 3 drops, use 2. With essential oils, less is always more!

Final Note.

Fennel essential oil's three main constituents -- anethole, estragole, and fenchone -- are interesting, both for their therapeutic abilities and their possible dangers. Estragole is a weak procarcinogen (meaning it needs metabolic activation to become carcinogenic)(4), but anethole has been shown to block carcinogenesis.(5) Likewise, anethole can cause liver damage at certain levels, yet the liver produces enzymes that neutralize anethole. This gives new dimension to the claims that crop up stating essential oils to be hazardous or carcinogenic.

Fenchone adds another layer to this discussion. Ketones are generally regarded as toxic even at low levels, yet there are no studies proving Fennel essential oil, used correctly and at the correct dosage, is toxic. And even if fenchone were shown to be a toxic constituent, would it be toxic if isolated from the oil or as part of the whole oil? Further, fenchone is a powerful healing constituent in terms of clearing up lung congestion.

Essential oils, like their synthetic pharmaceutical counterparts, are powerful drugs. They allow us to heal ourselves, but it is important to respect their power to damage if used improperly. In the realm of the pharmacist, apothecary and aromatherapist, there is no "good" and "bad" when it comes to oils. Each person is a unique individual, and so each treatment must be chosen according to individual needs and individual risk assessment.

As always, I urge you to consult an expert before treating yourself.

I wish you good health.



(1) Journal of Medicinal Food, Fall 2006, 9(3): 418-21, "Inhibitory effects of spice essential oils on the growth of Bacillus species," Ozcan, Sagdic, Ozkan, Department of Food Engineering, Selcuk University, Turkey. PMID 17004909

(2) Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, December 29 2004, 52(26): 7862-6, "Antibacterial activity of Coriandrum sativum L. and Foeniculum vulgare Miller Var. vulgare (Miller) essential oils," Lo Cantore, Iacobellis, De marco, Capasso, Senatore, Departimento di Biologia, Universita degli Studi della Basilicata, Italy. PMID 15612768

(3) International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics, February 2003, 80(2): 153-7, Namavara Jahromi, Tartifizadeh, Khabnadideh, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Iran. PMID 12566188

(4) Natural Standard

(5) Oncogene, June 8, 2000, 19(25):2943-50. PubMed ID 10871845